Land Use Patterns Reveal Urban TB Hotspots: A Spatial-Temporal Study in Penang, Malaysia

Abstract

In rapidly urbanizing Penang, Malaysia, tuberculosis (TB) remains a critical public health threat. We spatially mapped 4,015 cases (2015–2017) to link disease hotspots with land use. GIS-based spatial statistics (Moran's I and Getis-Ord Gi*) revealed significant clustering in densely populated districts. Hotspots in George Town aligned with residential, commercial, and transit corridors, underscoring how population density and mobility shape urban TB transmission. Integrating this spatial perspective into surveillance and planning enables targeted interventions. Our findings demonstrate the value of geography-informed strategies for controlling TB in rapidly evolving cities.