Introduction

Abstract

The agro-industrial sector produces huge amounts of effluent as a result of activities including palm oil milling, rubber processing, dairy production, pulp and paper industry, and fruit canning. Traditionally regarded as waste, these effluents offer major risks to the environment if not appropriately treated, such as water contamination, greenhouse gas emissions, and land degradation (Musa et al., 2019; Zahrim et. al., 2007). However, increasing environmental awareness and the push for circular economy practices have sparked interest in the long-term reuse and recycling of agro-industrial effluents. This approach not only mitigates the environmental effect, but also allows for resource recovery, such as energy, nutrients, and water (Bhatia et al., 2021).