Side effects and toxicity of nanovaccine in cancer treatment

Abstract

Nanovaccines represent a transformative advancement in cancer immunotherapy, enabling targeted antigen delivery, immune activation, and modulation of the tumor microenvironment (TME). This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of nanovaccine mechanisms, including their role in enhancing antigen presentation, dendritic cell activation, and cytotoxic T-cell priming. It explores the therapeutic promise of various nanoplatforms including lipid-based, polymeric, inorganic, and tumor-derived extracellular vesicles, while emphasizing the safety challenges they pose. Adverse effects, such as cytokine storms, autoimmunity, and organ-specific toxicities (hepatic, pulmonary, renal, and neurological), are critically examined. Key physicochemical factors influencing nanotoxicity including particle size, charge, shape, dosage, and route of administration are discussed, alongside strategies for mitigating risk through rational design and combination therapies. Despite promising clinical progress, challenges related to immunotoxicity, manufacturing consistency, and regulatory oversight remain. The chapter concludes by advocating for precision nanovaccine approaches guided by genomics and AI to optimize efficacy while minimizing toxicity, paving the way for safer, scalable cancer immunotherapies.